Annotated Bibliography

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

In his The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, David Crystal has a chapter dealing entirely with electronic variations of the English language. Crystal examines both text messaging and instant messaging in depth. He includes graphs comparing “netspeak” to speech and writing, and examines where they diverge, and the reasons behind these divergences. Crystal also details the history behind text and the internet, and how it has evolved. He also looks at historical precedents and attitudes towards new technologies in writing, such as the printing press and telegraphs.

Although this chapter may not be providing any new research on text practices, it does provide ample data relevant to my paper, such as attitudes towards texting, and its relation to written and spoken language.


Lewis, Cynthia, Bettina Fabos, "Instant Messaging, Literacies, and Social Identities." Reading Research Quarterly 40(2005): 470-501.

This study investigates digital literacy and instant message use in seven teenagers. In addition to this, Lewis and Fabos investigate the social expectations and ramifications of instant messaging, especially among youths. The authors analyze how the participants change word choice, tones and subject matter, depending on the recipients of the message. Lewis and Fabos realize the importance of researching instant messaging, stating that it is an important aspect of youth literacy.

The research in this study is relevant in many ways to my paper. It examines both social and technical aspects of instant messaging, and looks at other factors that influence IMing.


Lee, Carmen K.M.. "Text-making practices beyond the classroom context: Private instant messaging in Hong Kong." Computers and Composition 24(2007): 285-301.

Lee’s article looks at different ways in which instant message texts are produced by a group of college students in Hong Kong. Although a large portion of Lee’s study focuses on multilingual aspects of instant messaging, he also looks at the text-making practices associated with the use of instant messaging. Lee’s article finishing by stating that the ability to produce IM texts is a different process from that of language learning in the classroom. Lee makes frequent references to code-switching and code-mixing. Furthermore, like many of the articles I am using in my research, he examines social attitudes towards text and instant messages.

Even though Lee may focus on the particulars of instant messaging in a diversely multilingual culture (Hong Kong), he still contributes to overall studies of instant message practices, which I believe will be helpful in my paper.

Hagood, Margaret C.. "New Media and Online Literacies: No Age Left Behind." Reading Research Quarterly 38(2003): 387-391.

Margaret Hagood’s article discussed many concepts and theories relevant to instant and text messaging practices. One of these concepts is active audiencing, which “call into question transmission models that position readers as passive receivers of information and meaning marketed towards particular audience.” (388) Hagood looks at both the role of the audience in messaging, and the reception messaging has received by the media and schools.

Hagood’s integration of multidisciplinary concepts with new media studies will be helpful in my analysis of text and instant messaging.

Bernhardt , Stephen. "The Shape of Text to Come: The Texture of Print on Screens." College Composition and Communication 44(1993): 151-175.

Bernhardt’s essay, although only written 15 years ago, displays many antiquated views towards technological text practices. However, he does have some relevant data, including the differences displayed in readers between printed text and electronic text.

Although Bernhardt’s paper predates much of the texting and messaging I will be researching, he provides an early source in regards to attitudes and research practices.

Lee, Carmen K. M.. "Affordances and Text-Making Practices in Online Instant Messaging." Written Communication 24(2007): 223-249.

While I was researching articles for my paper, the name of Carmen Lee often appeared in regards to instant messaging. In this particular study, Lee investigates the various factors that may influence a user’s choice of language and script in instant messaging. Lee states that studies of instant messaging practices have moved from identifying linguistic features to investigating the social issues that surround them. Lee himself does a combination of the two in this article, and also implores other researchers to look beyond simply English language instant messaging. In his other article that I have listed, "Text-making practices beyond the classroom context: Private instant messaging in Hong Kong.", Lee looks at instant messaging practices in Hong Kong.

Lee’s article will be useful to me in many ways, he both outlines text making practices in IMs, and also explores societal pressures and implication in regard to them.